Friday, January 24, 2020

Future of Cars Essay -- Technology Vehicle Essays

Future of Cars Vehicles have been around Europe and the United States since the late 19th century. Henry Ford was the first person to produce inexpensive vehicles quickly and was the one to start Ford Motor Company. Ford vehicles, as well as many other vehicle companies, have caused people to think differently as to how to travel from one place to another in an efficient manner. From its inception to today, vehicles have changed dramatically. We as drivers feel having the new features or advanced technology in our vehicles is considered unique, especially if it’s under our ownership. Many engineers who currently are working on producing and designing vehicle models have brought new features, that will appear soon in one of America’s popular cars. Recently, an article in Forbes magazine titled â€Å"Wired Wheels† by John Turrettini discusses digital technology stored somewhere in the vehicle. The placement of the new digital technology is dramatic for the driver, since the person at the wheel will not have the authority to brake when they feel there is a need. Drivers will need to understand the functions of the new digital technology installed in their vehicle. They also must be aware of the changes that will occur for them. While we are behind the wheel, we have control of where we are going and when to stop, but when it comes to having new technology designed into our vehicles, we want to know how it will work also. First, we know when to stop, for stop signs, or preventing an accident with a person or an object. Our minds are thinking of when to brake and how to react when we do it. We immediately avoid an accident by steering around it or braking or stopping in time. Engineers who work in the auto industry are experi... ...hicles in the next 10 years. The time might not be far off from now when vehicles will have the brake by wire, but in the meantime we will can depend on the development, the accuracy for the brake by wire to work effectively, and of course we will saving money for these high tech vehicles because I’m sure future vehicles involving the brake by wire technology will be costly. Works Cited Turrettini, John. â€Å"Wired Wheels.† Forbes Aug. 6, 2001: 84-85. Sallee, Debbie, and Ross Bannatyne. â€Å"Trends in Advanced Chassis Control†. Automotive Engineering International Sept. 2001: 30-32. Ballesteros, Juli. â€Å"TRW Drives Steer-By-Wire.† Sept. 17, 2001. http://www.inmedia.it/published/20010915/2001091516329.shtml (24 Nov. 2001). Gross, Ken. â€Å"The Tricky Side of Technology†. Automotive Industries. 2001. http://www.ai-online.com/articles/1001/gross.asp (26 Nov. 2001)

Thursday, January 16, 2020

Economische En Sociale Geschiedenis

Samenvatting Economische en Sociale Geschiedenis 2013 INHOUD: 1. Samenvatting Boek â€Å"Before the Industrial Revolution† M. Cipolla 2. Kleine samenvatting Boek â€Å"Arm en Rijk† D. Landes 3. Samenvatting algemene hoorcolleges: Migratie & Interbellum 1. Samenvatting Boek â€Å"Before the Industrial Revolution† M. Cipolla Part I CHAPTER 1: Demand (pages: 3 t/m 52) Spain census of population, 1789, lot of population estimations are rough and not precise. Small societies. Not very large growth of population in 18th century. Low fertility or high mortality is the cause of slow growth. So population of preindustrial Europe remained relatively small. more in chapter 5). Normal mortality occurs in normal years. Catastrophic mortality occurs in calamitous years, it far exceeded current fertility. Always drastic fluctuations of population. Needs: depend on population size, geographical factors, and structure of population by age/gender/occupation & sociocultural factors . Cultural factors forbid/duty to do certain things. As long as a person is free to demand what he wants, what counts on the market are not ‘needs’, but ‘wants’. Wants are both expressed by individuals and society but only have limited resources, we have to make choices.Wants become effective demand when they are backed by purchasing power. (expressed by purchasing power). Purchasing power is based on income/distribution of income (public/private) & level and structure of prices. Income and distribution: Incomes can be divided in wages/profits/interests and rents. Preindustrial Europe was a striking contrast between the abject misery of the mass and the affluence and magnificence of a limited number of very rich people. Lyon & Florence 10% of the population controlled more than 50 % of the wealth assessed. Other measurement of wealth: bags of grain. (reserves).Gregory King made accurate calculations of national income, putting to good use all the material h e had available in addition to his personal observations. Poverty and unequal distribution of wealth and income. People with no income at all beggars. In France at the end of the 17th century, beggars counted for 10 % of the population. Most people lived at subsistence level, no savings or social security to help them in distress, only hope was charity. In different European cities, there were different percentages of â€Å"beggars†. Many fluctuations in unemployment figures. In years of famine (hongersnood/schaarste) high numbers of poverty.Income can be earned or transferred. Transfers: voluntary transfers (charity/gifts) & compulsory transfers (taxation). Many people left things behind for charity when they died. Also disasters and feasts served to accentuate charity. When people died from a disaster, their belongings went to the church/hospitals. Besides charity, gambling and dowries were forms of voluntary transfers, they could affect productive activity. Compulsory tran sfers; taxation on the one hand, plunder and theft on the other hand. Theft on low-class people because of: famine, inequality of income. Noble people also: earlier centuries of middle ages.Ransom (losgeld), large transfers of wealth. In early periods, great importance of alternatives to trade. After 10th century, trade expanded and concentrated in cities. (Permanent fairs). Types of demand: Demand for production goods, demand for services, demand for capital goods. 1. Demand for consumption goods 2. Demand for services 3. Demand for capital goods Demand can also be divided into: 1. Private internal demand 2. Public internal demand 3. Foreign demand Private demand: the lower the income, the higher the percentage spend on food (logic). The poorer the country, the higher the percentage spend on food of total expenditures.The lower the income, the more spend on poorer foods, such as bread (stijfselachtig voedsel). Rich people, less amount of total income on food. Symbolic value of food in preindustrial Europe. Rich ate a lot. Somethimes too much. Purchase of clothing was luxury. Epidemics, clothing of deads were passed over, which spread the epidemics. Plagues. People lived in small houses with many families. (rents were very high in large towns, compared to the wages). Milanese Public Health Board issued rules for living, but poverty stood in the way of wisdom. Rich had domestic staff. Low wages favoured the demand of domestic services.Wages only did not represent the total expenditures on them. costs of food/living/heating and other items provided tot servants by their employers. Income not spend on consumer goods and services is naturally saved. Nobody saves to the same extent: 1. Level income 2. Psychological/sociocultural factors 3. Income distribution. Obvious when income is high that there is more possibility of saving. Rich people could invest an amount saved of their income. (Cornelig de Jonge van Ellemeet for example). National saving in England at the end of the 17th century amounted to less than 5 percent of national income.Very unfair divided income distribution. Even though England was one of the richest preindustrial societies, NO high concentration of income. Preindustrial societies were in a position to save only if they succeeded in imposing miserably low standards of living. Flow of monetary income becomes circular savingwill be converted into investment. Hoarding: preindustrial Europe, large amounts of monetary savings were hoardeddid not reach financial market (under matrasses/socks for example). A lot of hoards were accidentally discovered. Hoarding because of fear (robbery and plundering). Beginning 11th centrurydis-hoardingdivine activities.Building cathedrals, helping the poor, religious building. 11th & 12th century financed through dis-hoarding. Investment euphoria. Public demand: Arose from the 11th century, only 5-8% of national income. Before the 18th century public and private demand were different to distingu ish. Distinction: presence of CHURCH as patrimonial & economic entity. Level and structure of public demand: a. â€Å"income† public power (derive from: taxation, public loans (forced), state property exploitation, gain of the mint) b. â€Å"wants† of those in power (war/defense/court/civil administration/festivities) c. he price structure and of the community they control Public powers can increase taxes; income is function of their â€Å"wants†. Public Debt= invention of Italy city-states. Moneys lent to the state by private citizens, mostly forced loans. Citizen would receive interest on the sum lent. Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance the public powers managed to broaden the tax base & to raise the rate of taxation. Parties Casuelles were in France the fiscal bureaus. In England and France the revenues of the Crown rose. But also rising prices, growing population, increased wealth.Fiscal privileges for the nobles (adel) hit the poor hardercomplaints! From 12th century sometimes administration was done by noblemen (no salary). A major expenditure of public money were embassies (representation). But military expenditure surpassed by far all the other expenditures. Also medical and educational services rose. Ethical & social valuepaying with public money so that ANY person (rich or poor) could get education or treatments. For example in Milan in 1288 had 3 of such surgeons. 1324 18 of such surgeons in Venice. Education: in the Middle Ages only private education (few).When communes arosepaying teachers with public money. Public schools arose rapidly. After 11the century. Education is investment in human capital. Guns & warships unattractive form of capital, capital goods middle 15th century public expenditure. Demand of the church: Church is important economic entity in preindustrial Europe. Donations from counts/barons, unable to manage land themselves so they donate to church. Very large magnitude of such estates. Before the 11th century. Following centuries nobles/wealthy donate buildings and lands to the church. 16th and 17th centurygrowing size of land holdings.Every now and then , however, church fell upon hard times in which bad administration affected property Reformation was worst period before 18th century. dissolution (ontbinding) of monasteries. A lot of monasteries (kloosters). By 1550 nothing was left of English monasteries, all possessions dispersed. Lots of income for Crown (benefit from sales). ReformationLombardy(-ije) before countries affected by Reformation. Reformation cuts into further growing of lands & possessions of church. The distribution of wealth within the church reflected the unequal distribution of wealth in society as whole.Foreign demand: Network of exchanges with other economic systems (goods/services/wealth/capital & metals). Import/Export = foreign trade. Exports are the response to foreign demand. Demand largely on food and textiles. End 16th century, clothes 80% English export. High transportation costsquality products, well do could afford these products. Industrial revolution made it possible to buy foreign made products easier. Import/Export could be measured by total GDP. (GNP). England best country with statistics on foreign trade. Henry VII (15th centrury) 300. 000. 17th century 9,5 million, increase in volume foreign trade.In Portugal, ancient manufacturers destroyed. Trade consequences depend on qualitative structures of certain trade. CHAPTER 2: The factors of production (pages; 53 t/m 96) Input is made up of factors called â€Å"factors of production†. Labor (ARBEID): divide people in consumers/producers & ages of people. Preindustrial 1/3 under 15. 60% 15-60 years old before 19th century. Difference between preindustrial & industrial societies = composition of dependent population (consumers but NOT producers). Nowadays productivity is very high, ratio of dependency 50-65%. Preindustrial: work till dead, start younger than 15.Chil d labor fields; summer. Bad treatment + female labor (agricultural/spinning/weaving). Wet nurse: sells food (mother’s milk) & cares for infant (service). Of economical and social importance. Sectors of activity: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary. Primary: Agricultural; low productivity, high % of total people worked in Primary sector not all sunk, kill and eat it, very vulnerable†¦ Working Capital: consists of stocks and inventories. (raw materials, semi-finished goods, finished goods). Stocks of foods, spared from consumption capital. Creating stocks costs money. Nowadays: ratio working capital to fixed capital is reduced. 2012, doomsday preppers however still exist;-)). Working capital is continually turned over. Continually coming back for reinvestment disinvestment is easier. STOCKS can be sold. QUESTIONL: Why low levels of production of preindustrial societies and a vicious circle of poverty? investment was so limited because opportunities for productive investment were extremely limited. Not so much because of poor potential of saving. Natural resources (NATUUR): non reproducible capital. Not infinite!!!! Land is a natural resource. Mineral deposits of: silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, etc.Medieval people were conscious about pollution more than during Industrial Rev. (Pitcoal). Forestsrules of cutting and planting trees. Later the rules became less important to the Europeans (during M. A & Renaissance). A lot of brick and marble in Italian culture because they exhausted their forests very early. Energy of water and wind for land-based activities (used on the spot), so manufacturers were located were mills could be build. Organization: labor, capital and natural resources must be combined in organizational forms which vary according to technology, the size of markets and the types of production.Different forms of organization can coexist. Preindustrial manufacturing was concentrated on the workshop. Craftsman. Dependent on who gave order (merchant s with warehouses). Mining and shipbuilding sectors. Modern capitalism manufacturing or trading sectorsled to modern capitalism. CHAPTER 3: Productivity and Production (pages; 97 t/m 114) Production is the outcome of all individual and social choices acting on both the demand and the supply side. Labor, capital and natural resources are INPUTS of production. Output emerges from their combination of use. Determinants: better education, economies of scale, technological development, etc.Entrepreneurial activity is a necessary ingredient, but not a sufficient one+ human vitality of whole society. Medieval and Renaissance productivity levels: technological progress. Agriculture (Slicher van Bath): between 1200 and 1700, grains yielded per seed planted rose. Fluctuation because natural resources, poor control over forces of nature. Animals poor fedless milk from cows, little meat. Weavers : low labor productivity meant that production processes were labor-intensive. Building industry: li ttle improvement on productivity. Other sectors noticeable improvements during MA & Renaissance. Gutenberg 1440: printing press (drukpers).The main reason for productivity gain was technological progress. Still low compared to industrial society. Not only quantity is important n measuring productivity, quality also important, but less records available. Positive production: greatest part of production in preindustrial Europe: food, textiles, buildings and domestic services. The: foreign trade. Many people produced locally. Negative production: the deliberate destruction of men and whealth & pollution and the destruction of the environment. Destruction of men and wealth for political or religious reasons. Assasins, Arsonist, Bomb-throwers. War!! -> Labor (the military) and capital (weaponry) with the avowed intention of destroying. Industrial army greater destructive power. Preindustrial: scarcity of capital. Plague destroyed men, not capital. Livestock killed, acres burned, vineyard s destroyed. a. destruction of natural resources b. pollution of the environment with the waste products of consumption c. pollution of the environment with undesirable by-products of productive activities d. damage to the health of those engaged in production In preindustrial societies less capacity for negative production. But even preindustrial societies managed to mismanage. 6th century increased use of coal in England. Domesticindustrial. (Fumifugium 1661. J. Evelyn). Miners, Gilders, Potters, Sulfur workers, Tanners, Glass-workersconcern for working conditions of labor. Part II CHAPTER 4: The Urban Revolution: The Communes (pages; 117 t/m 122) After fall down Roman empire, cities fell with it. Economic decline. North improved position, contact with south. Muslim invasion. Depressed and depressing world, rise of cities between the 11th and 13th centuries represented a new development, which changed the course of history. Differences between parts of countries and countries. Mas sive migratory movement.Towns grew because populations grew, high fertility & people from rural areas to cities. Migration: push & pull factors. Town was a place for innovation, economic and social advancement. Nobles took residence in the city (Italy). Cities became seats and centres of the power of the triumphant bourgeoisie. Citie WALLS. (protection). Towns were very different in medieval and renaissance period. Emegence of towns was a social and cultural revolution. Unique personal status for people living in cities. Burgers†¦ Italian cities attack and conquer the surrounding territory ( conflict with central power of Empire).Germans not!! France got a monarchy very soon. England, cities developed slower, very few revolutionary characteristics. Horizontal arrangements, co-operation among equals: university, fraternity, gildthe commune were the institutions created by the new outlook and which reflected new ideas. QUESTION: How did cities emerged from a portus (Belgian histo rian) beside a feudal castle of rising again from the foundations of a Roman town, was core of new society. Between 11th & 13th century. CHAPTER 5: Population: Trends & Plagues (pages; 123 t/m 136)Beginning new millennium, thin scattered population 35 million total. 1000-1400 population grew. Black dead came back in 1348, wiped out people. Also: wars, famines & epidemics struck again. En of 15the century 80 million. 16th century substantial growth. Beginning 17th100 million. Population of preindustrial Europe remained young and small. High fertility and high mortality. Marriage: manay people lived in celibacy (celibatair). Avoided for economic reasons. Age of marriage differs from time, class and country. Average age marriage around 25. Many people which DID married made it up for the unmarried.Number of children born still very high. High fertility because of youthful age structure and high mortality. QUESTION: Which types of mortality can be distinguished? Normal and catastrophic mortality. Normal mortality happens to occur in normal years. free from calamities (infants and adolescents) but WITH poverty.. While catastrophic mortality also took adults. Preindustrial societies were very vulnerable to calamities of all sorts. (WARS, FAMINES, PLAGUES (EPIDEMICS)). People literally died of hunger. Famines contributed directly to increase in mortality but also indirect by encouraging epidemics.Epidemics contributed most to the frequency and the intensity of catastrophic mortality. Balck Dead 1348. But also evey year an epidemic. Tyfus, bacteries, plaag, etc. Low growth rates. Begin 14th century several areas overpopulated, to prevailing levels of production and technology. Demographic growth big, public health development small! Effects of epidemics on given population are determined not only by the # people killed, but also by distribution of age (fertility). Normal mortality usually lower than fertility, but after a catastrophe start all over again. Citites surv ived because of flow from country to city.Epidemics after 18th century subsided. Pandemics. Mortality no longer assumed catastrophic proportions. Disappearance of plague after 17th century. Reasons: better building, burying corpses, disappearance of black rat? –> onverdedigbaar! BUT: ecological revolutiondemographic revolution, due to technological and economic achievements of western Europe. CHAPTER 6: Technology (pages; 137 t/m 159) Technological developments 1000-1700: Romans ->Watermills, slave labor (cultural reasons for development stagnations). BUT: we always think of machinery as we think of technology.Romans were very good in : organization of military, administration, architecture, road construction). Main technological developments 6th-11th century: watermills, plough, crop rotation, horseshoe, methods for harnessing draft animals. NOT inventions but increase in USE. All agricultural and strengthen each other. Many horses used, better capital. Alos IRON for equipme nt. Also developments in human capital and water power, watermill used for all kinds of productions. Also Windmillsirrigation end of 12th century. In 1745 a FANTAIL , sails into the wind automatically, 1st example of automatic control in machinery. 300 the compass, more mathematical navigation. Ship as capital greater value. Inventions: spinning wheel and spectacles (BRIL). Beginning 14th century: clocks, firearms and canal locks. Ship building: ship skeleton first during later middle ages. 15th centuryfull-rigged ships, all kinds of winds sailable. Time of voyages diminished + costs reduced. systematic knowledge of winds. Naval guns were build out of bronze. 16the centurycasting iron guns. This before mentioned provided a basis for expansion overseas. Technological innovation: printing (Gutenberg) bible, before printing was very expensive.Press opened up vast new horizons and opportunities in the fields of knowledge and education. Spread rapidly. Spinning wheel China 11the century, Europe 12th century. Innovation: small steps through numerous minor experiments. After the industrial revolution modern science. Windmill originally Persianvertical axis, European horizontal axis worked much better. Paper originally Chinesespread to Muslim empire. European paper produced with machines driven on watermills. After 12th century passion for mechanization of all productive processes. LABOR SAVING DEVICES.Mechanical clock for examplefirst measuring time in different ways, from 13the century need for solution measuring time because of mechanical outlook from people. Spread of clock: churches, public buildings, etc. Consequences of mechanization: in a number of sectors gains were achieved + mechanical outlook reinforced more and more. Logical consequence that follows is a mental outlook, which takes centuries to develop. Also feared as a source of possible dangerous disturbances. Scarcity of labor caused by epidemics one factor; but were many more and complex factors. Also mental attitudes and aspirations.WHY Europe so favourable to change? We do NOT know. The spread of technology: 12th – 15th century Italians leas technology invention. 16th-17th century Dutch and English. Through ages; main channel for diffusion of innovation has been migration of people. = migration of human capital. Sometimes things kept a secret when economic interest were at stake. Spread: migration of craftsman to other parts of country or other countries skilled labor migration. Push and pull factors, bad for economy of home country when people moved to other country. Sometimes punishments because of skilled movement.DRANG NACH OSTEN; Dutch people went to east because of fertile ground. Bologna attracted artisans in exchange for privileges. Depends on circumstances if invention takes place in host country of skilled laborers. Qualities that make people tolerant also make them receptive to new ideas. CHAPTER 7: Enterprise, Credit & Money (pages; 160 t/m 182) Enterprise a nd credit: Business techniques; organization of fairs, accounting techniques, insurance, etc. Many techniques developed between 11th and 16th century in Italy. From 16th centuryDutch and English; great trading companies.Lack of productive investment because of hoarding etc. But cities grew and credit developed very rapidly. Sale credit, therefore consumption became higher. Commenda: partnership contractsone or more give a SUM, used by other in business†¦instead of hoarding for example. Some as stock exchange, small and large savings. From 15th compagnia (coastal cities). Inland grew companies better†¦less risks (pirates, bad weather, etc). Involvement of shareholders unrelated to original family marked end of first phase in company history. End 13th century; entries publicly authenticated. Italians: double entry bookkeeping. 6th/17th oversea trade, expansion demand capital. Companies createdEast India Company, stocks and shares. Commenda: not possible without MUTUAL TRUST & honesty in business. Development civil/criminal legislation. Monetary trends: Start 11th century economy + monetary system developed. Middle Ages + Renaissance only coins. Chinese 13th century paper money already. Gold measured in carats, pure measure of gold and silver. Is intrinsic value. During Middle Ages and Renaissance monetary systems progressed. Before 1000- denariuscould work in primitive economies. Silver, 1 coin only.Until the 16th century until the Germans invented a way to mechanize the minting process involving a watermill. Many goods instead of cash (horses, weapons, etc. ) Growing demand for money after 11th century. 2 standards for coins (fineness, weight) !! Extreme: in Germany every prince or individual town strok OWN coins. M=P+(C+S) P:marketprice, M: amount someone brought in, C:charge minter, S:left of worth metal Devaluationsincrease amount in circulation= bring more metal in increase P English relatively strong coin. France unstable (1290) devaluation and r evaluation, economy suffered in France.Also due to 100 year war. Countries coinage shouldn’t belong to a king. Italy different gentler downwards devaluations than in France. Grossi, Piccioli, of denarius new phase with â€Å"multiples† of 1 coint. Bimetallic: system with silver AND gold started in Italy. Supply of metals due to discovery of African coast (Portugese; 1457, cruzado). Afterwards silver founded in parts of Germany, rush towards heavy & chunky coins. Silver â€Å"Guldiner† in Germany. Spanish came back from America with gold/silver = Real of Ocho (Eight). 16th /17th century = intrinsic fineness. 2th century and onward banking activity deposits = intangible = ink. Money. Bankers appeared money changes: intermediaries for public & mints. Depositors/bankers/payees. Bankers always hold certain amount of cash delivered to them in case people want to withdraw it. Just a fraction of total amount in KAS. –>reserve. This is the origin of bank money. In England goldsmiths who collected deposits and created money. Bank money positive development. QUESTION: Were there any economical drawbacks? Many panic, wars, high risks of losing money. Hurry to banks to collect deposits.Not all money was there because bankers only hold a â€Å"fraction† of total deposits. The rest was in investments and loans. Many banks went BANKRUPT. CHAPTER 8: Production, Income & Consumption (pages; 183 t/m 208) The great expansion: 1000-1300: Phase of expansion: new technologies/growth of towns/new sociocultural environment/increased division of labor/monetarization of economy/stimuli to saving, all these factors encouraged economic expansion. 1000- when European development took off, cultivation of land. Fertile land, NEW land. The Christian Reconquista made important progress in Spain. Territory got re-conquered.Drang nach Osten(12-13th century). As the Germans advanced, new cities were founded. By 1300 the movement had slowed down. The German eastw ard expansion was demographic, economic, political and religious in character. Very good land in the east (better capital and techniques brought with them). Expansion to Central Europe, Baltic countries. Everybody in Europe benefitted from it. Untill Ind. Rev. economy remained agricultural. Rebuilding new city walls. As were leading sectors there were leading areas. Northern Italy, bridge between Europe and north Africa. Coastal republics and important crossroads.Seafaring activity was greatly extended. Economic trends: 1300-1500: CHAPTER 9: The Emergence of the Modern Age (pages; 209 t/m 233) 2. Samenvatting Boek â€Å"Arm & Rijk † D. Landes * 1. Ongelijke bedeeldheid natuur * 2. Omgaan met natuurlijke gesteldheid: Europa en China * 3. Europa’s eigen weg * 4. De uitvinding van het uitvinden * 5. De ontsluiting van de wereld * 6. Naar de Oost * 7. Van ontdekkingen tot wereldmacht * 8. Bitterzoete eilanden * 9. Heerschappij in de Oost * 10. Gewinzucht * 11. Golconda * 1 2. Winnaars en verliezers: de balans van de wereldmacht = t/m blz 202 1. Ongelijke bedeeldheid natuur:Invloed van geografische factoren, met name klimaat. Hierarchy betreft gunstig klimaat. Inkomen per hoofd bevolking in rijke landen in de gematigde streken. Onderontwikkelde in tropen of subtropen. Geografische gesteldheid is 1 van de factoren. Eenvoudige rechtstreekse verbanden: klimaat, in warme landen is werken zwaarder, hitte, lichaam. (neem als voorbeeld siesta). Slavernij in warme streken, anderen doen het werk. AC verscheen pas laat. In Amerika al eerder. Klimaatregeling kostbare techniek, weinig armen kunnen zich dat veroorloven. Arbeidsproductiviteit in warme landen lag LAGER.Complexe en indirecte verbanden: Hitte zorgt ook voor verbreiding van voor de mens schadelijke levensvormen. Slakkenziekte (parasieten) , malaria etc. Geneeskunde grote vooruitgang geboekt bij bestrijden dergelijke ziekten. Kolonisten brachten artsen mee, hierdoor inheemse langer leven. Zuigelingsterft e erg minder. Contrast echter nog steeds schrijnend. Tropenziekten + geneeskunde (inheems). Waterregenwoud, veel regen korte tijd, verpest alle vruchtbarheid etc. Uiterste: droge streken. Opslag zou oplossing zijn, maar enorm snelle verdamping. Rampenvijandig klimaatook in rijkere landen, Amerika orkanen bijvoorbeeld.Afrika: sterftecijfer blijft hoog ondanks vooruitgant, ook mede door bevolkingsexplosie. Opvallend verschil in werkkracht en efficiency tussen gematigd en tropisch klimaat. voedingspatroon NOEM EEN DIRECTE EN INDIRECT VERBAND WAAROM WARME LANDEN HET ZWAARDER HADDEN? [zwaarder werken in hitte, AC duur, slavernij] & [hitte zorgt voor verspreiding schadelijke levensvormen] 2. Omgaan met de natuurlijke gesteldheid: Europa en China: Europa: betrouwbare en gelijkmatige waterval + gematigde temperaturen. Voedselvoorziening in handen van mensen met vruchtbare grond. Mediteraanse zee, minder regen, slechtere grond betere bomen en veeteelt.Hierdoor achterstand Zuid-Europa, ook do or culturele factoren. Waarom kwam Europa zo traag op gang na Egypte en Mesopotamiegeografische liggingLigging in wouden/bossen, epidemieen/pandemieen/hongersnood/plagen/oorlogen. Later, technologie om land te bewerken, oorlog te voeren, meer mestmere voedsel, geen wormziekten die China wel teisterden. Europeanen waren gezonder. Echter zeer vruchtbaar slib in oosten. Overstromingen en droogte perioden in China/India. Grote bevolkingsdichtheid, er werd snel getrouwd. Europa pas laat trouwen. China: tussen 1000-1300 verdubbeling bevolking, daarna afname door epidemieen.Steeds meer landbouw nodig om mensen te voeden. Agrarische revoluties. Trokken van noord naar zuid. Uitbreiding graanschuur en enorme concentratie op rijst. Arbeids en waterintensief energiemodelhydraulische samenleving eigen arbeiders, sterke overheid, niet westers. Werd ook tegengehangen. Tijd tot tijd, zonder autoriteit. WAT IS EEN HYDRAULISCHE SAMENLEVING? GEEF VOORBEELD†¦Een  hydraulische samenleving  (ook bekend onder de termen  watermonopolie-rijk  of  hydraulische these) is een sociale of overheidsstructuur, die haar macht ontleent aan de exclusieve controle over de de toegang tot water.Ten grondslag hiervan ligt meestal de noodzaak tot gecoordineerde  irrigatie  of gecontroleerde overstromingen, waardoor centrale planning en een hiertoe gespecialiseerd overheidsapparaat een belangrijke rol gaan spelen. ] 3. Europa’s eigen weg: In de 10e eeuw had Europa net een lijdensweg ondergaan van plunderingen, roof, oorlogen. Noormannen naar zuid-europa en oosterse contreienRussen. Geduchte en wrede plunderaars. Hongaren vanuit het Oosten, bleven niet lang. Hierna, door afwezigheid van agressie kon Europa groeien, mede door ondernemingszin (niet vanzelfsprekend).Tussen oude mediterrane wereld and moderne Europa zit overgangstijdkwam nieuwe samenleving op gang. Orientaals despotisme (alleenheerschappij). Hierdoor niet mogelijk eigen gang te gaan, belemmerde dus de onderneming szin. Middeleeuwen tijd van overgang, Eigendom was recht!!! Europa zag niet toe, reguleerde niet en onderdrukte niet, China wel wat betreft eigendom. Ook despotische regeringen in Europa, maar ingeperkt door de wet. Chinamuren om mensen bij zich te houden, niet overlopen naar rivalen†¦Als er in Europa rivaliteit was tussen landen, goed jegens burgersanders konden ze overlopen.Er ontstonden gemeenten als marktplaatsen. Knoopplaats tot handel met platteland (hogere status). Heersers gaven macht aan stedelingen en buitenluiomdat dat meer oogst opleverde en tevens macht heerser uitbreidde. Middeleeuwen Europa: economische revolutievoedsel, landbouwmethoden, INNOVATIE ipv UITVINDINGEN. WAAROM SPREEKT MEN LIEVER OVER INNOVATIE DAN OVER UITVINDINGEN? [nieuwe methoden stamde al uit eerdere tijden, neem windmill (vertical/horizontal axis voorbeeld OF Ploeg op wielen door Germanen meegebracht]

Wednesday, January 8, 2020

Fun Things to Do During College Summers

Your time in college -- during the academic year, that is -- is, of course, filled with stressors like classes, papers, lab reports, and exams. It is also happily filled with the fun stuff, like friends, parties, going out, and a seemingly endless schedule of upcoming events and activities. During the summer, however, the social scene in your life can drastically decrease, especially if youre no longer on campus and spend your days at a job or internship. Whats a college student to do? Get Some Culture Go to a museum.  Go see some art, plants, science, history, or anything else you find interesting. And make sure to use your student ID for a discount.Go to a film festival.  Film festivals can be a great way to see new, independent films that you might not otherwise see, and summer is a great time to find a festival that focuses on the kinds of films you like.Go to a concert.  Who doesnt like a late-night, all-out, super-fun, big-name concert?Go to a music festival.  The weathers nice, the musics great, and the people are fun and interesting. Take advantage of summer music festivals while you can.Go to a play.  It doesnt have to be Shakespeare but it should be fun. Whens the last night you went to the theater -- not for a class -- anyway? Get Creative Learn an instrument.  You may have always had a desire to play the piano, learn the flute, or even play the drums. Why not learn now when you have the time and freedom to really put your heart into it?Take an art class.  Learning to make pottery or how to paint, for example, can be a great way to learn how to release your creative side.Try your hand at creative writing.  You can try to write poems, a short story, or even music. You never know what you might come up with when you have the time and freedom to really let your mind explore!Take a photography class.  Honing your photo-taking skills can be a great way to have fun, meet people, get some skills, and see new parts of your town. Get Lost in a Good Story Read a new release book.  It can be science fiction, general fiction, trashy romance, murder mystery, historical fiction -- but it doesnt matter. Grab the latest release and let your brain take a break.Read a classic.  Always hearing about a classic book one of your friends or family members loves? Been curious about a novel you never read in high school? Summer is the perfect chance to finally sit down and read it.Buy a magazine you dont usually read.  It can be intellectual, like The Economist, or ridiculous and fun, like People. But whens the last time you just let yourself sit, veg out, and read a magazine?Get an audiobook.  Fair enough: you may read enough during the year to not want your nose in another book over the summer. Consider buying (or getting from the library)  an audiobook that you can listen to while working out or driving around. Get Physical Try a new form of exercise.  Been curious about yoga, pilates, spinning, or something else? The summer is a great time to explore something new and see if its a fit.Join a community sports team.  Most places have community sports teams that play in the summer; they can range from competitive baseball to completely silly kickball leagues. See whats in your area and what you can join for the few months youre free.Take a class at the gym.  Summer can be a great time to get in shape. Your local gym probably has classes you can join that will help you exercise your body -- and relax your brain.Go golfing.  Never been? Golfing can be a great workout, a fun way to spend the day outside, and an important skill to learn if youre interested in going into the business field.Take a dance class.  Feel awkward when you go out clubbing with friends? A dance class can help, even if its something funky like swing or salsa.Go for a bike ride.  People seem to ride bikes less and less the ol der they get. But bike rides can be a fun way to get out and  get some exercise.Do something that challenges your fears.  Terrified of skydiving? Bungee jumping? And yet,  do you secretly also want to try them? Grab a friend and conquer your fears. Get Social and Give Back Volunteer. Think of the last time you volunteered. Didnt you feel great afterward? No matter where you leave, there are undoubtedly places that could use your time, energy, and smarts.Join a community group. Treat yourself to something fun that also gets you out into the community, like a running or hiking club.Organize an event at your church, temple, mosque, etc.  If youre a little bored this summer, chances are others are, too. Organize something fun with people you have something in common with. Get Entertained Try a new video game. Seriously, its summer. What better time is there to grab a new game and play it without worrying about that paper youd have to write if it were the school year?Watch a movie marathon. You can rent a ton of your faves or just watch a themed marathon on a TV network.Spend a weekend seeing all the new releases. Grab a friend and see if you can see all the new releases in one weekend. With food in the theater, theres no reason why you can just spend all day there, seeing movie after movie!Try a new idea: breakfast and a movie. Just wake up? Call a friend and meet at a local place that serves 24/7 breakfasts ASAP. Then amble over to the theater and enjoy whatever movie is next playing. Added bonus: breakfast is cheaper than dinner, and matinees are cheaper than the later shows.Head to an amusement park.  Its a summer classic and can easily turn into one of the highlights of your summer. See the World -- Or Explore Your Own Backyard Take a bus or a train somewhere new. Flying can be so cheap these days that folks sometimes forget about the bus or train. But sometimes the journey is half the fun, and youll see new parts of the country youd never see from the air.Take a quick flight somewhere new. Since flights, especially last-minute deals, can be so cheap, why not hop a flight this weekend and see a friend?Act like a tourist in your own town.  If you were in your town on vacation, what would you do? You might surprise yourself by finding new things to do and see.Go camping.  Camping during the school year can be a challenge, both because of your workload and because of the weather. Utilize all that summer has to offer for the great outdoors. Get Cookin Try a new kind of food or restaurant. Heard people talk about how delicious Peruvian food is, for example? Or have you always been secretly afraid to try sushi? Challenge yourself to try something new (to you).Experiment in the kitchen/learn to cook. During school, you probably dont have much time to learn how to cook; you just need food, fast. Use some of your summer free time to learn how to cook.Take a knife class.  Learning how to properly use a knife in the kitchen is both handy and impressive -- and yet very few people do it correctly. Taking a knife class at a local cooking school will be entertaining and super helpful as you learn to cook for yourself more and more.Take a bartending class.  Its fun, its handy, its a great way to meet people with similar interests. Whats not to like?Host your own Iron Chef competition.  Gather several friends and divide them into groups. Then, at a certain time in the morning, e-mail out the secret ingredient. Everyone has to report back to, say, your house at 5:00. People will have fun and youll have dinner on top of it. Pamper Yourself Get a massage at a massage school.  Youre a student; you know how important it is to learn by doing. Find a local massage school and help another student learn his or her trade. Added bonus: massage-school massages are usually way cheaper than the regular ones and just as good.Get a funky haircut.  You may not even get a haircut while youre away at school. Why not use summer as a time to get a little funky with color or style? Take Full Advantage of the Summer Season Go to a major sports game.  Baseball, basketball, soccer -- it doesnt matter. Grab some friends and head to the stadium.Go to a minor sports game.  Things like  minor league baseball games can be incredibly fun and much cheaper than the big leagues. See whos around your town and when you can watch em play.Grab some kites, friends, burgers, beers, and a picnic table.  With that combo, how can you go wrong?Go to a water park.  Summer is prime time for water park fun -- as long as you remember the suntan lotion.Make your own fun water park day.  You dont have to have a water park near you to enjoy yourself. Grab some water balloons, a Slip n Slide, a kiddie pool (that can be used for lounging or even, when filled with ice, for storing drinks), some friends, and a hose. Set Yourself Up For Success Get a head start on your fall classes.  Alright, this one may sound lame, but it can do wonders for your mental health to look over your syllabi and perhaps get a head start on the reading -- especially for a class you might be geeked out about.Set up systems for success for the new year.  Okay, this also sounds lame, but think about it: Did you struggle with time management? Being  organized? Spending a little time now, while you have it, may save you a lot of time and frustration once school starts.Take an online class.  You wont have to commute, you can save some cash, and you might even get ahead on the credits youll need to graduate.Build a personal website.  If youre going to be graduating next year, a personal website can be a great way to advertise yourself to future employers and show them all your mad skills. Make sure to keep it clean and professional.Go through your old stuff and donate what you dont use or need.  Do you have things for 2 lives: your college l ife and your pre-college life? Someone somewhere will probably be grateful for all of those sweatshirts and t-shirts youre no longer using.Clean up your e-life.  Super fun? Probably not. Will you feel better afterward? Most definitely. Dump your old Facebook friends, clean up your  laptop desktop, and delete old pictures you dont want -- or would hate to get in the wrong hands -- from your camera or phone. A clean e-slate is a great way to start your new year.